Analysis of Story Structure Part 1: The Chapter

by Gamal Hennessy

Exploring the building blocks of story is a helpful exercise in the development of any novel. Writers who plot can use this technique to help map a story’s progression (See Building a Better Story Part 3: Plot Construction). Discovery Writers can use it during their rewrite phase to understand how the story developed. They can also use it to modify elements that might inhibit the flow of the narrative. (See Plot vs Pants: Which Road Do You Choose?) This essay will look at the second level of story structure, the chapter. I plan to discuss beats, sequences, acts and sequels in later posts.

Disclaimer: The foundation of this method comes from the screenwriting book, Story.  I've modified it slightly for my own personal use.

The Story within a Story

In an ideal scenario a chapter is a miniature version of a story. It has all the structural components of a full novel in a compact form (See Building a Better Novel Part 2: The Narrative Framework). The goal of these ”mini stories” two fold; we want to move the story forward and reveal aspects of the characters. These goals are achieved when each chapter alters the condition of the characters on some level. The change can be minor or major. The change can be positive, negative or a bit of both. The change can be internal, interpersonal or extra personal. But in almost all cases, we need to create some change that drives the overall narrative and shows us who the characters are (See Creating Characters We Want to Know)

Felt but Not Seen

When the structure of a story works well it is similar to the structure of a building. People can enjoy the effects without thinking about or even noticing the details. For example, I work in an office building every day. The only time I notice the structure of the building itself is when something doesn't work. The same concept applies in your story. If a casual reader is picking out each element in your narrative, then they are not fully engaged in the story. Of course, a fellow writer might look at your story structure in the same way a building engineer instinctively looks at the working of a building. The casual reader shouldn't notice those things.

The Elements of a Chapter

I identify five fundamental structural elements in any chapter in a story.

• POV: This gives the reader the emotional perspective that you want them to follow and understand (See Managing Emotional Points of View) 
• Situation: This orients the reader in time and space, giving them an understanding of the character’s relationship to their world 
• Desire: This expresses what the POV characters want, whether it is their ultimate goal in the story or just a step that brings them closer to that goal. 
• Beats: The sequence of action and reaction designed to dramatize conflict.
• Turning Point: The action or revelation that changes the condition of the POV character
• Outcome: The result of the character's pursuit of desire. The outcome in most chapters plays a role in the situation and desire of the next chapter.

Example

The chapter structure does not require anything long, elaborate or convoluted. Consider this:

Jacob stormed up to the trailer with his Louisville slugger clutched tight in his gnarled fist. Lucky wanted to put his dirty paws on Ella? Let's see him try that with broken fingers. Jacob banged the handle of the bat on the flimsy door. It felt good to do that. If Lucky didn't open it and open it fast, it would only take a couple of swings to knock it down. Jacob had a mind to tear down the whole damn trailer.

Jacob never fired a shotgun before, but he knew the sound it made before it went off. His aunt Tee said it was a sound God created to drive off the spineless. Jacob wasn't spineless. He wasn't stupid either. The click clak of the shotgun on the other side of Lucky's door sent him diving for the mud. Splinters rained down on him. All the sound got sucked out of his ears. Jacob swallowed hard to keep his heart and his lunch from shooting up into his throat and choking him to death. Then he moved his ass.

Jacob scrambled away from the trailer on his hands and knees. He forgot about the Louisville slugger. He wasn't gonna get Ella back from Lucky with that.

My hope is that you can not only see the basic elements in that passage, but that you were also entertained enough to ignore the structure while you were reading.

Exposition and Non Events

If the goal of a chapter is moving the story forward and revealing character through conflict then there are two ways that a chapter can fail on a structural level. The first problem is referred to as exposition. This occurs if a recitation of facts is placed in a narrative for any reason other than the progress of conflict in the story. For example, in the recent series of Batman films, Bruce Wayne inherits a multi-billion dollar enterprise that seemingly built, controls and pays for most of Gotham City. No attempt is ever made to explain where this money comes from or even how much money he has. This wasn't left out because it's a "comic book movie". It's left out because it has nothing to do with telling the story. It is exposition that needs to be left out.

The second problem is the related issue of a non-event. This occurs when the condition of the characters in the end of the chapter is the same as it was in the beginning. These are the mundane events that provide no insight into the character and don't move the story along either. This is why as writers we leave out every shower, meal and bathroom break that doesn't directly impact the story. Sitting down to eat a ham sandwich often doesn't have a turning point, unless the meal is transcendent.

Stealing this for Your Own Purposes

If you want to look at the structure of your chapters, all you have to do is answer the following questions of each chapter in isolation:

1. Who is this chapter about?
2. Where are they in the story?
3. What do they want?
4. How do they try to get what they want?
5. Who or what tries to stop them?
6. Do they succeed or fail? What is the outcome?

Do you think this kind of analysis is helpful for your fiction? Do you already do something like this, or do you have your own method? Please leave a comment and let me know.

Have fun.
Gamal

Building the Better Novel, Part Three: Plot Construction

I apologize for jumping between my essays on plot development (See Part 1: Foundation and Part 2: Framework) and independent publishing issues (See Finding an Editor and The Cost of Independent Publishing). In a perfect world,  I would write these as two distinct series and not mixed together. In the real world, I'm releasing one novel and plotting another while a third manuscript waits for editing. I write essays based on what I'm working on at the time, hence the bouncing from one subject to another. The world of an independent publisher isn't perfect,  but it is fun.

Before I got sidetracked, I broke down my plot development process into the foundation where the book is conceptualized and the framework where the broad outline of the book is laid out. The next step in my process is to add structure to the frame through the use of beats, chapters, and acts. By linking each one of these parts into the framework of the overall concept a plot can take shape.

The Beat
According to Robert McKee's Story, a beat is an process of action and reaction. For example, a man and a woman are having a pleasant dinner when, he gets down on one knee and proposes marriage. The proposal is the action. Her response is the reaction.

Not all beats need to be that momentous or interpersonal. A woman who decides to hit the snooze button instead of getting out of bed. The alarm is the inanimate action and her snooze is the reaction. If a man washes his car and it starts to rain, it is an extrapersonal action reaction of cruel irony.

The Chapter
Existence is full of random beats, but writers who plot use the beats to move the story forward. A chapter is a series of beats that alters the conditions or situation of the characters. In our dinner chapter above, we have the action of the proposal and her reaction of saying yes or no. This sequence of events changes the situation of the characters and moves the story. She says yes and he experiences marriage. She says no and he faces rejection. She says maybe and he faces doubt. Any way you slice it, his situation changes and propels the story forward.

There one thing I have been taught about chapters is that the condition of the characters has to change on some level. In screenwriting I've heard this referred to as "turning the scene". If everything is the same for the character at the end of the chapter as it is in the beginning,  then the chapter does not move the story and is what's called non event that doesn't need to be in the story. For example, the shower that the man took before the proposal dinner and the ride he took to the restaurant don't move the story, so they are non events that can be skipped over. Putting in a non event kills the momentum and interest in the story in almost all cases.

Ideally, a chapter serves as a mini story with a beginning, a middle and an end. The characters are in one position at the start of the chapter. They move through beats and levels of conflict that are either internal,  interpersonal, extra personal or all three at once. The situation at the end of each chapter becomes the beginning of the next chapter. It is similar to episodic television,  where the overarching plot is broken down into smaller events that move toward the endgame. One of the reasons I started writing short stories before I tackled a novel was to get the feel of building a beginning middle and end in only a few pages (You can read some of my short fiction for here)

The Act
An act is a series of scenes that represent major milestones in a story. In the same way we discussed the beginning middle and end (See Framework), the acts can loosely represent this progression.

Story talks about absolute irreversible change between acts, where the level of conflict and the level of willpower and effort increases with each act, so that the protagonist can't go back to lesser effort or lesser actions in the pursuit of their desire. I don't know if this is true in all cases and genres, but I have adopted it for my use.

Most stories can be defined by the number of acts they have. A short story often has one. The novella has two. The novel has at least three. But some stories break this convention. Shakespeare's work often has five acts, Raiders of the Lost Ark has seven. You can have any number of acts that fit your work, but because of the beginning, middle, end concept, three is the norm for most novels.

How I Build a Plot

• I layout my foundation and my framework in front of me to show where the acts are and where I'm going. 
• Then I map out the chapters to show me how I'm going to get there. 
• Next I build in the beats for each chapter with one sentence descriptions of action and reaction.

Once I've gone through the whole story I work backwards.  

• I look at each beat and make sure it fits within the logical framework of the foundation of the story and its overall direction. 
• I examine the structure of each chapter to figure out what goes where, what happens before or after something else and where the subplots, if any, need to go. 
• Finally, I look at the acts and see if the pace and flow of the story works.

At that point I make myself a drink because I have a plot.

There are certain things that I put in the plot and things I always leave out. The goal of the protagonist in each chapter is explicitly stated in each chapter of the plot. Their emotions as the beats move also gets written down. Any research I need to do, hints or foreshadowing that needs to occur, and implications for other chapters is duly noted. Description, dialogue or other spontaneous details don't go in the plot. I save that for later.

The plot is highly adaptable and fluid at this stage. New subplots and chapters can be added in. Many chapters can be split up, combined or thrown away completely. The beginning,  middle and end can change quickly and easily. Anything can change if it serves the story. Characters sit next to you and offer their opinions. 'I would try to do this', 'I would never say that.' New connections are made and seeds are planted not just for this novel but for other stories down the line. It is like building with Lego. I've got a good idea of what it's supposed to look like, but I'm free to add, subtract and adapt.

Controlling Ideas
As the plot takes shape, the theme or controlling idea comes into focus. The controlling idea is the overall statement describing what they story is about. It is not just a stated value like love, truth or justice. It is a statement that states why a value undergoes change. Once I understand this idea, it will influence everything that I think of as I actually write the manuscript.

Write the Damn Book Already
Once the foundation has been established, the framework has been laid out and the plot has been based on that work, writing the book can actually happen. This three part preparation often takes time, but it makes the actual writing much easier for me. For my last manuscript it took about eight months of working on it off and on to go through all three steps. Writing the actual manuscript took six months or about 3,000 words per week. I still altered the plot while I was writing, but I never had writer's block or wrote myself into a place I couldn't get out of. I plan to start writing the next novel in January. It should be ready for beta reading by May.

I know this process isn't for everyone (See Plotter vs. Pantser). Many writers are struck with a flash of inspiration and rush to the computer. They write for as long as the Muse guides them and the results are based largely on spontaneous creativity (See How Much Inspiration Do You Need?). There is nothing wrong with that. This is the process that works for me. It's not better or worse, it's just different. If you find something here worth stealing, please be my guest. If not, at least you got some idea of how the other half writes.

Have fun.
G

Building a Better Novel, Part 2: The Narrative Framework

On the road to creating my next novel I've discussed inspiration (See How Much Inspiration Do You Need?), building characters (See Creating Complex Characters) and developing the fundamental building blocks of story (See Building a Better Novel: The Foundation). Now I'd like to take a look at the next step I take before I create a plot; creating the frame for the story.

Pieces of a Dream

In the screenwriting method of writing, a story has four parts:

• An Inciting Incident that disrupts the protagonist and propels them toward their Object of Desire (See The Foundation)
• A Spine that follows the Protagonist's unconscious desire into progressive complications through the Levels of Conflict (See The Foundation)
• A Crisis Climax that pits the Protagonist against the greatest Force of Antagonism (See Foundation), reveals their True Nature (See Creating Complex Characters), and either fulfills his Desire or takes whatever he has Risked (Foundation)
• A Resolution that explains the impact of the Climax on the Protagonist and possibly the wider world around them.

In the simplest storytelling terms (when you take the Climax and Resolution as one part) a story has three parts; a beginning, a middle and an end.

Extra Credit

Of course, a story is often more complex than this basic structure. An inciting incident might need to be set up by a subplot or a prologue to achieve the greatest emotional effect. Subplots can also be added to alternate mood, contradict or enhance the central theme or further complicate the main plot. Flashbacks can be used as subplots to dramatize character or juxtapose the main plot. Multiple protagonists can pursue different and often contradictory goals. The variations are endless, but they are all based on the concept of beginning, middle and end.

Bare Bones

The basic narrative framework by itself cannot produce a great story. It is a tool that has to be combined with genre conventions (See The Secret Struggle), a supreme understanding of the characters and the world they live in through research and practice, and the creativity to take these bare bones and adorn them with description, dialogue, pacing, subtext and all the other elements that enrich a good story. But all these other tools support the basic narrative framework. Much like building a house, it makes no sense to worry about decorations like curtains and lampshades when the foundation of the house isn't stable enough to keep the whole thing from falling down.

Have fun.
Gamal

How Much Inspiration Do You Need?

My essay last week on plotting vs. spontaneous writing generated a lot of debate online (See Plot vs. Pants). It also raised a deeper question for me about ideas and inspiration; how much inspiration does a writer need to start creating a novel?

In the Beginning

The start of my own creative process is a mental Frankenstein. It could start with from a book, movie or video game (See Bloody Inspiration Film, Graphic Novels and Books).  Then add in something that I haven’t seen that I’d like to create. Throw in a real world issue that catches my eye and season it with my own philosophical perspective. Bake for several days or weeks and presto…I’ve got my inspiration.  

For example, my next novel Smooth Operator is definitely a cobbled together concept. Books like Rain Fall and 100 Bullets inspired the tone and the characters. My own interest in corporate spy companies and new forms of organized crime channeled my focus. The tactics and world view of Robert Greene and Machiavelli rounded out the message to create the Life and Crimes of Warren Baker.

But I don’t start writing a novel with just an idea. I spend some time developing it into a story. I imagine the beginning, the middle and the end (actually, the process works better when I think up the end, the beginning and the middle). I look at the characters, including their motivations, conflicts and resources. I cut the story into acts, the acts into chapters and the chapters into beats. I get a feel for the genre, setting, time period and the duration of the story. If all the idea can remain viable after it goes through that plotting process, then I start writing my novel. If not, it goes into the idea file to be played with at a later date.

Are Six Words Enough?

Writers who plot might recognize some of their own method in the process I described. But what happens if a writer creates by the seat of their pants? Several writers have told me that they follow an idea and start writing to see where the idea takes them. How much of an idea gets them going? Is it a detailed nightmare or a recurring dream?  Is it a photo in a magazine or an overheard conversation? Is it a character imagined over time or a phrase as simple as a woman walks into a bar? I know ideas can’t be measured like pounds of chocolate or gallons of whiskey, but I am intrigued to find out if spontaneous writers have a threshold of inspiration that guides them to creativity.

Can you share your idea to writing process? If so, please feel free to share.

Have fun.

G

Beta Testing: On Using and Being a Beta Reader

A few months back, I suggested that independent publishers could improve the quality of their books by using a quality control process that was similar to systems used by the major publishing houses. Now that my company is preparing to release its first full length book, I decided to take my own advice and recruit a team to help me. This is the story of my first use of beta readers and what I learned from them.

Beta readers have always been common in publishing for both new and established authors. Stephen King uses them, Anais Nin used them. Shakespeare probably had a few beta readers testing his stuff out. I see it as part taste test, part marketing focus group and part reality check. While every publisher does it differently, I decided my beta test would combine different types of people. I thought that would give me the most honest assessment of the manuscript. 

The Test Group for Smooth Operator

• The group consisted of seven adults; four women and three men.
• Half the group I knew personally, the other half I only knew from linked in and good reads.
• A few were older than me, the rest were younger.
• Some expressed an avid interest in crime thrillers, some didn't read very much in the genre.
• About half the group consisted of writers or editors themselves, the other half were purely readers.

I gave everyone about a month to read the book (about 75,000 words) and asked five focused questions about their opinions. I gave them the option to write more, but I felt the questions would be a good guide for feedback. None of the beta readers were paid.

1) On a scale of 1-5, I would rate this book a: ___

2) Would you be satisfied with this book if you paid $3.99 for it? ____

3) Would you read the sequel to this book? ____

4) Would you recommend this book to a friend or enemy? ___

5) If there is any author that this book reminds you of, please name that author (none is a completely acceptable answer) ____

The Results

• Half the group (4 people) read the book and completed the survey. The rest didn't have a chance to read or finish it.
• The response was positive across the board in terms of the overall quality of the prose with one minor exception, namely
• There was a split of opinion concerning the introduction. This is worth mentioning for two reasons. First, I tried to do something different by breaking the fourth wall to generate more interest. One reader liked it, the other disliked it and the last two didn’t bring it up at all. The second reason why that is worth mentioning is based on my reaction to the split. Stephen King's opinion in his book On Writing when it comes to differing views between beta readers is that "the tie goes to the writer." so I decided to leave the intro the way it is and see what happens when the book is released.

Finally, one beta reader went so far as to take me out for drinks so we could discuss his thoughts and feelings on Smooth Operator in depth. This is the best kind of beta reader. A writer loves nothing more than to spend hours discussing his work over whiskey.

The Takeaway

I learned three things from my beta test.

1. More readers are better because you can't count on 100% participation.
2. A beta test can be a confidence booster and a chance to expose your work to the light of day without a huge amount of risk.
3. The actual makeup of the group is no indication of who will actually respond.

Turning the Tables 

I mentioned earlier that some of my beta readers are also writers. One of them is also working on a novel now and asked me for a reciprocal beta read of her book. I never beta read before, but it felt inappropriate to turn her down after she just agreed to do me the same favor.

I decided the best way to help my fellow author was to deconstruct her novel and analyze the elements in the same way a critic reviews a book or movie. I analyzed the structural elements of the plot, the characterization of the main characters and the relationship between character and plot. I even looked at the composition of chapters and the relationships among the characters and how that impacted the plot. For each comment I made, I gave her an example or a reference book that might help improve the narrative. I wasn't able to get through the whole novel with this method, but she seemed very happy with the three pages of notes I delivered on the book, so I think I did OK.

I have come to the conclusion that beta testing is an important element of the publishing process. Not only can it improve your book, it can improve your connection with your writing community and can even lead to a good night of drinking. Quality control doesn't get much better than that.

Have fun.
G

Fictional Seduction in Five Easy Steps

Spring is (almost) in the air, and with it comes the traditional season of love and romance. I’ve been discussing the role of fictional seduction over the past two weeks, so this is a good time to walk through the seductive process and how it comes into play in writing.

Why Is This Important?

It is helpful for writers, readers and people in general to understand the elements of seduction in the same way they benefit from understanding the elements of story. Seduction, in fiction or reality, is a story with a distinct beginning, middle and end. It might only be a subplot of a story and it might not have any sexual component at all, but when it is well written, a seduction can be as satisfying as any good mystery, horror story or dramatic prose.

Sources and Methods

I’m not trying to suggest that I am an expert in seducing women. I have had far more failures than successes in my life. I have become a student of the seductive process and this essay is derived from some prominent writing on the subject including Robert Greene’s Art of Seduction, Ellen White’s Simply Irresistible, Erik Von Markovik’s Mystery Method and Ovid’s Art of Love. Each of these books approaches the process from a different angle, and this distillation is not an exhaustive description, but it’s a good primer for understanding the process.

Please note, that for our purposes the person doing the seducing is referred to as the artist and the person being seduced is referred to as the muse. Either person can be male or female. The time frame is open ended depending on the circumstances and the people involved.

The Seductive Process

Part 1 The Approach: Introduction leads to curiosity

In this element, the lovers do not know each other, or they know each other but do not see each other as potential partners yet. The key here is for the artist to stand out from the rest of the world in a way that captures the muse’s attention long enough to lead them into the next element.

Part 2 The Lure: Curiosity leads to attraction

Once a muse notices the artist, it is essential for them to find reasons to be drawn to and interact with them. The reasons can be artistic, financial, mental, sexual, social, spiritual or a combination of any of these depending on the lovers. The key is for the artist to find out what the muse wants and then showing that the artist can satisfy those needs. The primary connection here is intellectual because the lovers are engaging their imagination about what the affair could be.

Part 3 The Expression: Attraction leads to affection

At some point a love affair must feed the intimate needs of the lovers. This element often refers to sexual expression, but not every love affair includes sex between the lovers. Every form of expression does include an intense intimate connection that brings the lovers together while at the same time fulfills a basic emotional need. The primary connection here is sensual because the lovers are now engaging on a more physical level.

Part 4 The Bonding: Affection leads to connection

After the intense connection created by expression, lovers often feel safer sharing more of their individuality. This moves the love affair beyond the physical. Communication between them increases in breadth and intensity. Bonding doesn’t occur all at once. Often it is a process that occurs over many types of communication over an extended period of time. The key here is building trust that is essential for a deeper love affair. The primary connection here is emotional because both lovers are more vulnerable once the lovers move past the initial expression.

Part 5 The Comfort: Connection leads to integration

In a long term love affair, the lovers become part of each other’s lives. The initial novelty and uncertainty is replaced with complexity and intimacy. It is important to realize that comfort does not mean complacency. It does not mean a reduction in effort or an assumption that the lover will never leave no matter what you do. If anything, both lovers have the chance and the challenge to pursue and explore each other in ways that they would never be comfortable with in the earlier stages. The primary connection here is spiritual because it is at this point where the lover begins to define themselves in relation to the loved one.

Seduced by the Seductive Process

I have been fascinated by the seductive process ever since my divorce nine years ago. My two upcoming books both explore the seductive process in different ways. Smooth Operator focuses on the way money, ideology, coercion and excitement can be used to seduce, depending on the muse. A Taste of Honey goes deeper into the seductive process and how it can be used to deceive both the muse and the artist. I hope both books will be enlightening about this fundamental human connection as well as being entertaining.

Stay tuned.

Have fun.
Gamal

People We Want to Know: Creating Complex Characters

Question: What do Hannibal Lecter (Silence of the Lambs), Ellen Ripley (Aliens) and Rick Blaine (Casablanca) have in common?

Answer: Each of these heroes gained enduring popularity based on the complexity of their character.

All great fictional characters from Hamlet to Harry Potter hold our interest because their characterizations contradict their true natures. As a writer and student of the craft, I want to look at this contradiction in depth.

Characterization vs. True Nature

In his screenwriting guide Story, Robert McKee defines characterization as “the sum total of all knowable qualities about a character.” This means the physical, intellectual, social, financial and spiritual traits that a writer can describe about the individuals they create. True character (or as I like to call it, true nature) is a product of the character’s interaction with your plot, because the choices they make under pressure reveal their fundamental personality. As McKee states, “what they choose is who they are”.

In the most complex and interesting characters, the true nature is in direct contradiction to the characterizations. For example:

• Hannibal Lecter is a calm, polite, and intelligent gentleman until the FBI lies to him and sends him to suffer at the hands of a sadistic warden. He escapes by revealing a cunning, ruthless and cannibalistic nature that has shocked audiences for years after the film was first released.
• Ellen Ripley is a terrified, burned out engineer until she loses her surrogate child to xenomorphs. She saves the child by revealing a courageous survivor with an intense maternal instinct.
• Rick Blaine is an aloof and mercenary bar owner until the love of his life returns with the Nazis on her tail. This is when he reveals his true character as a patriotic and sentimental hero.

Fallen Heroes

Many weak characters fail to capture our imaginations because they have little depth; their characterizations and their true character are essentially the same. This is especially true in adventure and spy novels. At the beginning of the story, the protagonist projects the image of a bad ass. The plot progresses and the protagonist goes through the motions of proving he’s a bad ass. The story ends. There is no revelation. There is no depth of character for us to enjoy. The hero is a clichéd caricature of every Tom Cruise or Steven Segal action hero; flat and interchangeable.

Lessons Learned

Both novels I plan to release this year strive to have revelations of true nature vs. characterizations for both the protagonist and the antagonist. As the events of the story place the characters desires into conflict, the development of the plot will not only resolve the story but provide insight into who these people really are. In some ways, I hope that reading about my characters will illuminate something about the reader as well as the writer. That is the goal of any artist.

So who are your favorite characters?

How does their complexity play into your desire to read about them?

For the writers out there, how do you create complex characters in your own writing?

Have fun.

G